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De la familia de los ginseng (Araliaceae), el Ginseng americano es una planta que se cultiva en el este de Norteamérica y Canadá. Sus principios activos son similares al Ginseng koreano, sin embargo, su principal principio activo es el ginsenósido Rb1, carece de los alcoholes sesquiterpénicos del Ginseng koreano y tiene un sabor dulzón ligeramente diferente.
Esta planta es muy conocida y apreciada por sus propiedades revitalizantes físicas, mentales y sexuales, siendo considerado como adaptógeno primario que ayuda al sistema a adaptarse al estrés físico, químico o biológico. Existen varias plantas que pertenecen a este género botánico o comparten propiedades terapéuticas similares, por lo que reciben el nombre de Ginseng: el Ginseng koreano (Panax ginseng), el Ginseng americano (Panax quinquefolius) , el G inseng siberiano (Acanthopanax senticosus) y el Ginseng brasilero (Pfaffia paniculata), aunque otras plantas han sido consideradas, equívocamente, como Ginseng.
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Presione la Botella para conocer la planta |
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Principios activos:
Los principios activos responsables de sus efectos medicinales son las saponinas triterpénicas, de las cuales se han identificado más de 25 diferentes tipos. Se les denomina ginsenósidos R (Japón) o panaxósidos A-F (Rusia). También contiene polisacáridos hidrosolubles (panaxanos A-U), aceites esenciales (panaceno, limoneno, terpineol, citral) y poliacetilenos (ginsenoínas A-K, panaxinol y panaxitriol). Además, fitoesteroles como el beta-sitosterol.
Los principales principios activos -los ginsenósidos-, solo se encuentran en las distintas especies de ginseng. El Panax ginseng koreano es el que contiene mayores concentraciones de cinco de estos ginsenósidos, mientras que el Panax quinquefolius contiene principalmente dos de esos 5 ginsenósidos. |
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Acción Farmacológica:
1) Efecto energizante: Los principios activos del ginseng se unen a receptores betaadrenérgicos de la membrana celular, lo que desencadena las rutas de transducción del segundo mensajero (AMPcíclico). Subsecuentemente la señal se transduce a la mitocondria para que aumente la actividad de la Malato-deshidrogenasa, Succinato deshidrogenasa y Citrato-sintetasa (enzimas de la glicólisis aerobia o ciclo de los ácidos tricarboxílicos). Esto incrementa la generación de ATP incrementando así los niveles energéticos del paciente.
El aumento de la glicólisis aerobia conduce al incremento en el consumo de glucosa, lo que resulta en disminución de los niveles de glicemia y de utilidad clínica en el manejo de la diabetes mellitus.
2) Acción neuroestimulante : Previene los déficit de memoria por facilitación de la liberación de acetilcolina de los núcleos del hipocampo. Inhibe la recaptación de GABA, noradrenalina, dopamina, glutamato y serotonina a nivel cerebral, lo que resulta en la estimulación de las funciones cognoscitivas cerebrales, mejorando la eficiencia mental y la memoria.
Posee acción estimulante sobre el sistema nervioso central, disminuyendo el efecto depresor provocado por algunos psicofármacos u otras sustancias, e incrementando el transporte de fenilalanina y del fósforo inorgánico libre en la corteza cerebral. Estudios in vitro, muestran que los ginsenósidos Rb1 y Rg1 poseen acciones neurotrópicas y neuroprotectivas que pueden contribuir al aumento de la función cognitiva. La mejora de la función cognitiva que provocan los ginsenósido se demuestran en estudios in vivo, y podría relacionarse con la modulación de los sistemas colinérgico y serotoninérgico. Además, el ginsenósido Rb1 presenta un efecto antiamnésico por minimizar el efecto inhibitorio de los péptidos beta-amiloides (péptidos neurodegenerativos por un mecanismo de supresión de la transmisión colinérgica). El pseudoginsenósido F11 antagoniza, in vivo, la disfunción en la memoria inducida por la escopolamina.
También posee acción depresora sobre el sistema nervioso central, como consecuencia de la modulacion en la neurotransmisión por parte de los ginsenósidos, a través de una disminución en la disponibilidad de los neurotransmisores (GABA, glutamato, dopamina, noradrenalina y serotonina).
Algunos ginsenósidos bloquean la transmisión dopaminérgica estimulada por nicotina u otros psicoestimulantes. Estas sustancias actuarían en la región presináptica sobre receptores acetilcolina nicotínicos o sobre los receptores dependientes de canales de Na+ en la terminaciones nerviosas dopaminérgicas, pero no sobre los canales iónicos voltaje-dependientes. Se ha comprobado también una acción ansiolítica in vivo, además de una mayor tolerancia al estrés, en ratón.
Producen un efecto analgésico, posiblemente mediado por receptores opiáceos. La administración intraperitoneal de una mezcla de ginsenósidos suprime, de forma dosis dependiente, el dolor producido por la inyección de capsaicina en la región subplantar de ratón. La acción analgésica también se observa cuando son administrados vía intratecal e intracerebroventriular, sin embargo, no se observa ras administración subcutánea en la región de administración de la capsaicina. Por lo tanto, los ginsenósidos actúan a nivel del sistema nervioso central y no a nivel periférico, y sobre el sistema sensorial, sin afectar al sistema motor.
Además, in vivo, se observa que la administración intraperitoneal de ginsenósidos inhibe la hiperactividad producida por morfina y el efecto de tolerancia observado en los receptores postsinápticos dopaminérgicos.
Efecto protector neuronal durante episodios de isquemia cerebral, bloqueando los canales voltaje-dependientes de sodio.
3) Mejora la inmunidad humoral inespecífica: induciendo la producción de Interferón e Interleukinas 1,6,8 y 12 y aumentando la actividad citotóxica de los anticuerpos. La actividad inmunomoduladora está mediada por la producción de óxido nítrico.
La quinqueginsina es una proteína que inhibe la transcriptasa inversa del HIV-1 y las alfa y beta glucosidasas, involucradas en la infección de este virus.
4) Mejora la inmunidad celular inespecífica: mejorando la función de los linfocitos Th1 e incrementando el número de células formadoras de colonias de granulocitos-macrófagos, linfocitos y neutrófilos.
5) Efecto antioxidante: por captación de radicales libres y estimulación de la glutation peroxidasa hepática y de la sintetasa de óxido nítrico endotelial . Los ginsenósidos Rb1 y Rg3 presentan un efecto neuroprotector, mediado por una acción antioxidante, frente una sobreproducción de ácido nítrico. Esto reduce la apoptosis de células sanas, por ejemplo: se ha demostrado que protege a las neuronas dopaminérgicas en la enfermedad de Parkinson.
6) Acción hipoglicemiante: Incrementa la secreción de insulina por estimulación de las células beta del páncreas y regula la formación de glucógeno hepático. Ensayos in vitro en islotes de Langerhans de rata permitieron comprobar que incrementa la liberación de insulina. En ensayos in vivo en rata se demostró un aumento en el número de receptores de insulina en médula espinal y una reducción en los receptores de glucocorticoides en cerebro de rata. Además, a umenta el consumo de glucosa mediante el ciclo de glicólisis aerobia. Estudios clínicos en humanos confirman su acción hipoglicemiante, de utilidad clínica en el tratamiento de la Diabetes mellitus, tipos I y II.
7) Actividad cardiovascular: La raíz de ginseng posee acción hipotensora o hipertensiva, dependiendo de la proporción de los distintos tipos de ginsenósidos que contenga, debido a que algunos muestran acción hipotensora y otros hipertensiva. Estas saponinas actúan como antagonistas del calcio en los tejidos vasculares. Debido al predominio de ginsenósidos Rb del ginseng americanos, su efecto principal es la disminución de la tensión arterial.
El ginseng puede mejorar la disfunción del endotelio vascular en pacientes con hipertensión, posiblemente mediado por un incremento en la síntesis de óxido nítrico. La isquemia/reoxigenación (I/R, in vivo) o la hipoxia/reoxigenación (H/R, in vitro) es observada en varias enfermedades, como en el infarto de miocardio. La proteintirosinacinasa (PTK) posee un papel importante en la lesiones por I/R o H/R. Los ginsenósidos Rb1, Rd, Ra1 y Ro inhiben los efectos de la activación de la PTK inducida por H/R, in vitro.
Los ginsenósidos producen vasodilatación en las arterias cerebrales, demostrada en ensayos in vivo con monos, efecto también atribuido al incremento en la síntesis y liberación de óxido nítrico. Además, posee acción antitrombótica, in vitro e in vivo, debido a la inhibición de la agregación plaquetaria y de la cascada de coagulación.
Además, aumenta los períodos refractario y de repolarización ventricular; aumenta el umbral de repolarización ventricular, efectos similares al Verapamil y Amiodarona, antiarrítmicos utilizados en las arritmias de tipo ventricular.
8) Acción citotóxica: efecto antitumoral, probablemente debido a los ginsenósidos Rg3, Rg5 y Rh2. Estudios clínicos con ginseng americano demuestran su potencial como tratamiento c oadyuvante en el cáncer mamario
La acción de esta planta es similar aunque significativamente menor que la del Ginseng koreano. A diferencia de éste, no aumenta los niveles séricos de testosterona libre, por lo que no produce signos de androgenización.
Por estos motivos, se considera a esta planta como el "Ginseng de la mujer".
9) Acción anti-inflamatoria : los fitoesteroles inhiben la prostaglandín sintetasa, disminuyendo la conversión del ácido araquidónico a prostaglandina E, involucrada en el proceso inflamatorio.
10) Efecto hipolipemiante : Los ginsenósidos muestran propiedades antioxidantes al reducir la oxidación de las LDL. La raíz de ginseng estimula a la lipoproteín-lipasa, enzima que reduce los niveles de quilomicrones y VLDL en sangre y por tanto de colesterol y triglicéridos. Además, sus fitoesteroles disminuyen los niveles de LDL colesterol, por disminución de la absorción del colesterol dietético.
Medicina Sistémica y Panax quinquefolius
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| Dosis:
Tomar una cápsula con 500 mg dos o tres veces por día, con las comidas. Se recomienda un período de 2- 3 semanas, seguido por un descanso de 1- 2 semanas.
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Efectos adversos :
Aunque poco frecuentes comparado con su extensa utilización, el abuso puede producir el "Síndrome de abuso al Ginseng" caracterizado por hipertensión arterial, nerviosismo, insomnio, sangramiento nasal (epistaxis), cefalea, vómitos, urticaria y diarrea matutina.
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Precauciones :
Se debe utilizar con precaución en pacientes con enfermedades cardiovasculares y en aquellos que utilizan hipoglicemiantes orales.
Evitar el consumo excesivo de café.
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Interacción medicamentosa :
El ginseng puede potenciar los efectos de los inhibidores de la mono-amino-oxidasa (MAO) pudiendo provocar la aparición de crisis hipertensivas, cefaleas, temores y manías. También puede potenciar la acción de anticoagulantes del tipo warfarina.
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Contraindicaciones:
No utilizar en personas que reciben antidepresivos del tipo IMAO.
No utilizar durante el embarazo o cuando se sospeche su existencia. No administrar a niños. |
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Referencias
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1 : Arch Intern Med. 2000 Apr 10;160(7):1009-13.
American ginsen (Panax quinquefolius L) reduces postprandial glycemia in nondiabetic subjects and subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Vuksan V, Sievenpiper JL, Koo VY. Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto , St. Michael's Hospital , Ontario , Canada .
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BACKGROUND: Despite a lack of medical evidence to support its therapeutic efficacy, the use of herbal medicine has increased considerably. Ginseng, one of the most widely used herbs, is hypothesized to play a role in carbohydrate metabolism and diabetes mellitus. We therefore undertook a preliminary short-term clinical study to assess whether American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L) affects postprandial glycemia in humans. DESIGN: On 4 separate occasions, 10 nondiabetic subjects (mean [+/-SD] age, 34+/-7 years; mean [+/-SD] body mass index [BMI], 25.6 +/- 3 kg/m2) and 9 subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus (mean [+/-SD] age, 62 +/- 7 years; mean [+/-SD] BMI, 29 +/- 5 kg/m2; mean [+/-SD] glycosylated hemoglobin A1c, 0.08+/-0.005) were randomized to receive 3-g ginseng or placebo capsules, either 40 minutes before or together with a 25-g oral glucose challenge. The placebo capsules contained com flour, in which the quantity of carbohydrate and appearance matched the ginseng capsules. A capillary blood sample was taken fasting and then at 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 (only for subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus ) minutes after the glucose challenge. RESULTS: In subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus, when ginseng was taken taken before or together with the glucose challenge, significant reductions were observed (P<.05). Reductions in area under the glycemic curve was 19+/-22% and 22+/-17% for subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus administered before or together with the glucose challenge, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: American ginseng attenuated postprandial glycemia in subjets with type 2 diabetes mellitus . .
Publication Types:
• Clinical Trial
• Randomized Controlled Trial
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2: Am J Clin Nutr. 2001 Apr;73(4):753-8.
American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) attenuates postprandial glycemia in a time-dependent but not dose-dependent manner in healthy individuals.
Vuksan V. Sievenpiper JL, Wong J. Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto , Ontario , Canada .
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BACKGROUND: We previously showed that 3 g American ginseng administered 40 min before an oral glucose challenge significantly reduces postprandial glycemia in subjects without diabetes. Whether this effect can be replicated with doses < 3 g and administration times closer to the oral glucose challenge is unclear. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to study the dosing and timing effects of American ginseng on postprandial glycemia. DESIGN: In a random crossover design, 12 healthy individuals [X +/- SEM age: 42 +/- 7 y; body mass index (BMI; in kg/m2): 24.1 +/- 1.1] received 16 treatments: 0 (placebo), 1, 2, or 3 g American ginseng at 40, 20, 10, or 0 min before a 25-g oral glucose challenge. Capillary blood was collected before administration and at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, and 90 min after the start of the glucose challenge. RESULTS: Two-way analysis of variance showed that the main effects of treatment and administration time were significant (P < 0.05). Glycemia was lower over the last 45 min of the test after doses of 1, 2, or 3 g ginseng than after placebo (P < 0.05); there were no significant differences between doses. The reductions in the areas under the curve for these 3 doses were 14.4 +/- 6.5%, 10.6 +/- 4.0%, and 9.1 +/- 6%, respectively. Glycemia in the last hour of the test and area under the curve were significantly lower when ginseng was administered 40 min before the challenge than when it was administered 20, 10, or 0 min before the challenge (P < 0.05 ). CONCLUSIONS: American ginseng reduced postprandial glycemia in subjects without diabetes. These reductions were time dependent but not dose dependent: an effect was seen only when the ginseng was administered 40 min before the challenge. Doses within the range of 1- 3 g were equally effective.
Publication Types:
• Clinical Trial
• Randomized Controlled Trial
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3: Diabetes Care. 2000 Sep;23(9):1221-6.
Similar postprandial glycemic reductions with escalation of dose and administration time of American ginseng in type 2 diabetes.
Vuksan V, Stavro MP, Sievenpiper JL. Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto , Ontario , Canada .
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OBJECTIVE: We previously demonstrated that 3 g American ginseng (AG) reduced postprandial glycemia (PPG) in type 2 diabetic individuals. We investigated whether further reductions can be achieved with escalation of dose and time of AG administration. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Ten type 2 diabetic patients (6 men, 4 women; age 63+/-2 years; BMI 27.7+/-1.5 kg/m2; HbA1c 7.3+/-0.3%) were randomly administered 0 g (placebo) or 3, 6, or 9 g ground AG root in capsules at 120, 80, 40, or 0 min before a 25-g oral glucose challenge. Capillary blood glucose was measured before ingestion of AG or placebo and at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 min from the start of the glucose challenge. RESULTS: Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) demonstrated that treatment (0, 3, 6, and 9 g AG) but not time of administration (120, 80, 40, or 0 min before the challenge) significantly affected PPG (P<0.05), with significant (P = 0.037) interaction for area under the curve (AUC). Pairwise comparisons showed that compared with 0 g (placebo), 3, 6, or 9 g significantly (P<0.05) reduced AUC (19.7, 15.3, and 15.9%, respectively) and incremental glycemia at 30 min (16.3, 18.4, and 18.4%, respectively), 45 min (12.5, 14.3, and 14.3%, respectively), and 120 min (59.1, 40.9, and 45.5%, respectively). However, pairwise comparisons showed no differences between the 3-, 6-, or 9-g doses and any of the times of administration. CONCLUSIONS: American Ginseng reduced postprandial glycemia irrespective of dose and time of administration. No more than 3 g AG was required at any time in relation to the challenge to achieve reductions. Because these reductions included glycemia at the 2-h diagnostic end point, there may be implications for diabetes diagnosis and treatment.
Publication Types:
• Clinical Trial
• Randomized Controlled Trial
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4: J Am Geriatr Soc. 2004 Jan;52(1):13-9.
A placebo-controlled trial of a proprietary extract of North American ginseng (CVT-E002) to prevent acute respiratory illness in institutionalized older adults.
McElhaney JE, Gravenstein S, Cole SK. Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk , Virginia , USA .
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OBJECTIVES: To compare a proprietary extract of American ginseng, CVT-E002, with placebo in preventing acute respiratory illness (ARI) in an institutional setting during the influenza season. DESIGN: Two randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials conducted late in the 2000 (8 week) and 2000-2001 (12 week) influenza seasons. SETTING: Long-term care setting that included nursing home and assisted living at three sites. PARTICIPANTS: Eighty-nine (2000) and 109 (2000-2001) enrolled subjects, average age 81 and 83.5, respectively; 74% women. Approximately 90% had received influenza vaccine in each of the 2 years. INTERVENTION: Oral twice-daily administration of a proprietary ginseng extract, CVT-E002, 200 mg or placebo. MEASUREMENTS: ARI was defined as two new respiratory symptoms or one with a constitutional symptom. Confirmation of viral ARI was by culture (influenza or respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)) or serology for influenza. Laboratory safety monitoring was done at 0, 4, and 8 or 12 weeks. RESULTS: An intent-to-treat analysis of pooled data corrected for drug exposure time showed that the incidence of laboratory-confirmed influenza illness (LCII) was greater in placebo- (7 cases/101 subjects) than CVT-E002-treated (1/97) groups (odds ratio (OR)=7.73, P=.033). Combined data for LCII and RSV illness were also greater in placebo- (9/101) than CVT-E002-treated (1/97) groups (OR=10.50, P=.009), for an overall 89% relative risk reduction of ARI in the CVT-E002 group. CONCLUSION: CVT-E002 was shown to be safe, well tolerated, and potentially effective for preventing ARI due to influenza and RSV.
Publication Types:
• Clinical Trial
• Randomized Controlled Trial
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5: Phytomedicine 2002 Jul;9(5):398-404
Extractable polysaccharides of Panax quinquefolius L. (North American ginseng) root stimulate TNFalpha production by alveolar macrophages.
Assinewe VA , Amason JT, Aubry A, Mullin J, Lemaire I.
Department of Biology, University of Ottawa , Canada .
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We have investigated the immunostimulatory activity of the medicinal plant Panax quinquefolius L. (North American ginseng). Rat alveolar macrophages were treated with different extracts from 4-year old roots, and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF) production was used as a measure of immunostimulatory activity. Aqueous extracts of P. quinquefolius root (1-100 microg/ml) were found to significantly stimulate alveolar macrophage TNF release. Both a P. quinquefolius methanol extract containing ginsenosides (but no polysaccharides), and pure ginsenoside-Rb1, the major ginsenoside present in P. quinquefolius, were found to be inactive as TNF-stimulating agents. Significant TNF-stimulating activity was found in the extractable polysaccharide fraction, which was hydrolyzed and found to contain glucose, galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, and mannose. This represents the first evidence that North American ginseng exerts cytokine-stimulating activity on macrophages.
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6: J Neurotrauma 2002 Mar;19(3):369-78
Enhanced survival and regeneration of axotomized retinal ganglion cells by a mixture of herbal extracts.
Cheung ZH, So KF, Lu Q. Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong , China .
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The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of Panax quinquefolius L. extract (PQE), Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE), and Hypericum perforatum extract (HPE), in combination or alone, on the survival and regeneration of axotomized retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in an optic nerve transection model in adult hamsters. Unilateral transection of the optic nerve was performed to evaluate the effects of herbal extracts on the survival of axotomized RGCs. Effects of the herbal extracts on axonal regeneration of axotomized RGCs, on the other hand, were studied by attaching a peripheral nerve graft onto the transected ocular stump to induce regeneration. Operated animals received daily oral administration of vehicle or herbal extracts (PQE, GBE, and HPE), alone or in combination, for 7 and 21 days, respectively, in the survival and regeneration experiments. Surviving and regenerating RGCs were retrogradely labeled with Fluoro-Gold. The eyes were then enucleated and the retinas were flat-mounted for the counting of the labeled RGCs. Treatment with PQE, GBE and HPE alone failed to offer neuroprotection to injured RGCs. However, treatment with Menta-FX, a mixture of PQE, GBE, and HPE, significantly augmented RGC survival 7 days postaxotomy. Treatment with Menta-FX also induced a significant (87%) increase in the number of regenerating RGCs 21 days after optic nerve transection. This study demonstrates that herbs can act as a potential neuroprotective agent for damaged RGCs. It also suggests that the therapeutic value of herbal remedies can be maximized by the use of mixtures of appropriate herbs.
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7: Drug Metab Dispos 2002 Apr;30(4):378-84
In vitro effect of standardized ginseng extracts and individual ginsenosides on the catalytic activity of human CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP1B1.
Chang TK, Chen J, Benetton SA. Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of British Columbia , Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada .
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Ginseng extract has been reported to decrease the incidence of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-initiated tumorigenesis in mice. A potential mechanism for this effect by ginseng is inhibition of DMBA-bioactivating cytochrome P450 (P450) enzymes. In the present in vitro study, we examined the effect of a standardized Panax ginseng (or Asian ginseng) extract (G115), a standardized Panax quinquefolius (or North American ginseng) extract (NAGE), and individual ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, and Rg1) on CYP1 catalytic activities, as assessed by 7-ethoxyresorufin O-dealkylation. G115 and NAGE decreased human recombinant CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP1B1 activities in a concentration-dependent manner. Except for the competitive inhibition of CYP1A1 by G115, the mode of inhibition was the mixed-type in the other cases. A striking finding was that NAGE was 45-fold more potent than G115 in inhibiting CYP1A2. Compared with G115, NAGE also preferentially inhibited 7-ethoxyresorufin O-dealkylation activity in human liver microsomes. Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, and Rg1, either individually or as a mixture and at the levels reflecting those found in an inhibitory concentration (100 microg/ml) of NAGE or G115, did not influence CYP1 activities. However, at a higher ginsenoside concentration (50 microg/ml), Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, and Rf inhibited these activities. Overall, our in vitro findings indicate that standardized NAGE and G115 extracts, which were not treated with calf serum or subjected to acid hydrolysis, inhibited CYP1 catalytic activity in an enzyme-selective and extract-specific manner, but the effects were not due to Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, or Rg1.
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8: Phytomedicine 2001 May;8(3):178-83
Effects of Panax quinquefolius L. on brainstem neuronal activities: comparison between Wisconsin-cultivated and Illinois-cultivated roots.
Yuan CS, Wang X, Wu JA. Tang Center for Herbal Medicine Research, Pritzker School of Medicine, The University of Chicago, Illinois, USA.
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Brainstem neurons receiving subdiaphragmatic vagal inputs were recorded in an in vitro neonatal rat brainstem-gastric preparation. Aqueous extracts of American ginseng root (Panax quinquefolius L.) from Wisconsin and Illinois were applied to the gastric compartment or the brainstem compartment of the bath chamber to evaluate the peripheral gut or central brain effects of the extracts on brainstem unitary activity. After P. quinquefolius extract application to the gastric or brainstem compartment, a concentration-related inhibition in neuronal discharge frequency in brainstem unitary activity was observed, suggesting that P. quinquefolius plays an important role in regulating the digestive process and modulating the brain function in the rat . In this study, pharmacological effects of Wisconsin-cultivated P. quinquefolius and Illinois-cultivated P. quinquefolius were compared. Our results showed that Illinois-cultivated P. quinquefolius possesses a significantly stronger peripheral gastric as well as central brain modulating effect on brainstem neuronal activity. Data from our high performance liquid chromatography ginsenoside analysis suggest that this increase in inhibitory effects by Illinois-cultivated P. quinquefolius may be due to its different ginsenoside profile.
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9: J Agric Food Chem 2001 May;49(5):2472-9
Evaluation of estrogenic activity of plant extracts for the potential treatment of menopausal symptoms.
Liu J, Burdette JE, Xu H. Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, UIC/NIH Center for Botanical Dietary Supplements Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA.
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Eight botanical preparations that are commonly used for the treatment of menopausal symptoms were tested for estrogenic activity. Methanol extracts of red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), chasteberry (Vitex agnus-castus L.), and hops (Humulus lupulus L.) showed significant competitive binding to estrogen receptors alpha (ER alpha) and beta (ER beta). With cultured Ishikawa (endometrial) cells, red clover and hops exhibited estrogenic activity as indicated by induction of alkaline phosphatase (AP) activity and up-regulation of progesterone receptor (PR) mRNA. Chasteberry also stimulated PR expression, but no induction of AP activity was observed. In S30 breast cancer cells, pS2 (presenelin-2), another estrogen-inducible gene, was up-regulated in the presence of red clover, hops, and chasteberry. Interestingly, extracts of Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) and North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) induced pS2 mRNA expression in S30 cells, but no significant ER binding affinity, AP induction, or PR expression was noted in Ishikawa cells . Dong quai [Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels] and licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra L.) showed only weak ER binding and PR and pS2 mRNA induction. Black cohosh [Cimicifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt.] showed no activity in any of the above in vitro assays. Bioassay-guided isolation utilizing ER competitive binding as a monitor and screening using ultrafiltration LC-MS revealed that genistein was the most active component of red clover. Consistent with this observation, genistein was found to be the most effective of four red clover isoflavones tested in the above in vitro assays. Therefore, estrogenic components of plant extracts can be identified using assays for estrogenic activity along with screening and identification of the active components using ultrafiltration LC-MS. These data suggest a potential use for some dietary supplements, ingested by human beings, in the treatment of menopausal symptoms.
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10: Am J Chin Med 2001;29(1):149-54
Effect of American ginseng extract (Panax quinquefolius) on formalin-induced nociception in mice.
Yang JC, Pang CS, Tsang SF. Department of Anaesthesiology, The University of Hong Kong . |
Twenty-three ICR mice were force fed orally with American ginseng extract, Panax quinquefolius, (Cold FX) for 4 days. Another 20 mice were fed with water as placebo in a similar fashion. Formalin tests which yield typically two phases of pain behavior were done in both groups. Although there was no difference in the first phase between groups, mice treated with Cold FX spent significantly less time in licking and biting of the injured paws in the second phase. The data indicate that American ginseng may have analgesic effect in this chronic pain model.
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11: J Am Coll Nutr 2000 Nov-Dec;19(6):738-44
American ginseng improves glycemia in individuals with normal glucose tolerance: effect of dose and time escalation.
Vuksan V, Stavro MP, Sievenpiper JL. Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto and Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre, St. Michael's Hospital, Ontario, Canada.
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OBJECTIVE: We studied the effect of escalating the dose and administration time of American ginseng (AG, Panax quinquefolius L.) in nondiabetic individuals to achieve further improvements in glucose tolerance seen previously when 3 g of AG was taken 40 minutes before a 25 g glucose challenge. METHODS: Ten nondiabetic individuals (6M:4F; mean +/- STD: age = 41 +/- 13 years, BMI = 24.8 +/- 3.5 kg/m2, FBG = 4.5 +/- 0.1 mmol L(-1)) on 12 separate occasions, randomly received 0 (placebo), 3, 6 or 9 g of ground AG root at 40, 80, or 120 minutes before a 25 g oral glucose challenge. Capillary blood glucose was measured prior to ingestion of AG or placebo capsules and at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60 and 90 minutes from start of challenge. RESULTS: Compared with the placebo, 3, 6 and 9 g of AG reduced (p<0.05) postprandial incremental glucose at 30, 45 and 60 minutes; also, 3 and 9 g of AG did so at 90 minutes. At 60 minutes, 9 g of AG reduced incremental postprandial glucose relative to 3 g of AG (p<0.05). All AG doses reduced (p<0.05) area under the incremental glucose curve ( 3 g , 26.6%; 6 g , 29.3%; 9 g , 38.5%). AG taken at different times did not have an additional influence on postprandial glycemia. CONCLUSIONS: In nondiabetic individuals, 3, 6 or 9 g of AG taken 40, 80 or 120 minutes before a glucose challenge similarly improved glucose tolerance.
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12: Eur J Pharmacol 2001 Feb 9;413(1):47-54
Voltage-dependent inhibition of brain Na(+) channels by American ginseng.
Liu D, Li B, Liu Y, Attele AS. Department of Neurobiology, Pharmacology and Physiology, The Pritzker School of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
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American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) is a major species of ginseng that has many pharmacological effects. Studies have demonstrated that constituents of ginseng have neuroprotective effects during ischemia. Neuronal damage during ischemic episodes has been associated with abnormal Na(+) fluxes. Drugs that block voltage-dependent Na(+) channels provide cytoprotection during cerebral ischemia. We thus hypothesized that American ginseng may block Na(+) channels. In this study, effects of an American ginseng aqueous extract was evaluated in tsA201 cells transfected with cDNA expressing alpha subunits of the Brain(2a) Na(+) channel using the whole-cell patch clamp technique. We found that American ginseng extract tonically and reversibly blocked the channel in a concentration- and voltage-dependent manner. It shifted the voltage-dependence of inactivation by 14 mV (3 mg/ml) in the hyperpolarizing direction and delayed recovery from inactivation, whereas activation of the channel was unaffected. Ginsenoside Rb(1), a major constituent of the American ginseng extract, produced similar effects. The data were compared with the actions of lidocaine, a Na(+) channel blocker. Our results suggest that Na(+) channel block by American ginseng extract and Rb(1) was primarily due to interaction with the inactive state of the channel. Inhibition of the Na(+) channel activity by American ginseng extract may contribute to its neuroprotective effect during ischemia.
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13: Mol Cell Biochem 2000 Jan;203(1-2):1-10
Antioxidant properties of a North American ginseng extract.
Kitts DD, Wijewickreme AN, Hu C. Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of British Columbia , Vancouver , Canada .
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A North American ginseng extract (NAGE) containing known principle ginsenosides for Panax quinquefolius was assayed for metal chelation, affinity to scavenge DPPH-stable free radical, and peroxyl (LOO*) and hydroxyl (*OH) free radicals for the purpose of characterizing mechanisms of antioxidant activity. Dissociation constants (Kd) for NAGE to bind transition metals were in the order of Fe2+ > Cu2+ > Fe3+ and corresponded to the affinity to inhibit metal induced lipid peroxidation. In a metal-free linoleic acid emulsion, NAGE exhibited a significant (p < or = 0.05) concentration (0.01-10 mg/mL) dependent mitigation of lipid oxidation as assessed by the ammonium thiocyanate method. Similar results were obtained when NAGE was incubated in a methyl linoleate emulsion containing haemoglobin catalyst and assessed by an oxygen electrode. NAGE also showed strong DPPH radical scavenging activity up to a concentration of 1.6 mg/mL (r2 = 0.996). Similar results were obtained for scavenging of both site-specific and non site-specific *OH, using the deoxyribose assay method. Moreover, NAGE effectively inhibited the non site-specific DNA strand breakage caused by Fenton agents, and suppressed the Fenton induced oxidation of a 66 Kd soluble protein obtained from mouse brain over a concentration range of 2-40 mg/mL. These results indicate that NAGE exhibits effective antioxidant activity in both lipid and aqueous mediums by both chelation of metal ions and scavenging of free radicals .
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14: J Surg Oncol 1999 Dec;72(4):230-9
American ginseng and breast cancer therapeutic agents synergistically inhibit MCF-7 breast cancer cell growth.
Duda RB, Zhong Y, Navas V. Department of Surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
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BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) purportedly alleviates menopause symptoms because of putative estrogenicity. METHODS: Using a standardized American ginseng (AG) extract in MCF-7 breast cancer cells, the objectives were to evaluate the ability of AG to induce the estrogen- regulated gene pS2 by Northern blot analysis, determine the effect on cell growth using the MTT assay, and evaluate the cell cycle effects by flow cytometry. RESULTS: AG and estradiol equivalently induced RNA expression of pS2. AG, in contrast to estradiol, caused a dose-dependent decrease in cell proliferation (P < 0.005). AG had no adverse effect on the cell cycle while estradiol significantly increased the proliferative phase (percent S-phase) and decreased the resting phase (G(0)-G(1) phase) (P < 0.005). Concurrent use of AG and breast cancer therapeutic agents resulted in a significant (P < 0.005) suppression of cell growth for most drugs evaluated. CONCLUSIONS: In vitro use of AG and breast cancer therapeutics synergistically inhibited cancer cell growth.
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15: Jpn J Pharmacol 1984 Jun;35(2):79-85
The physiological effects of Aralia, Panax and Eleutherococcus on exercised rats.
Martinez B, Staba EJ.
Relative and total amount of saponins in Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, Aralia mandshurica and Eleutherococcus senticosus were determined by thin-layer chromatography and by a spectrophotometric method. The ginsenoside Rg1 was present in American ginseng . Aralia and Eleutherococcus did not contain diol- and triol-type ginsenosides. Low concentrations of ginsenosides were found in Oriental red ginsengs (1.4-2.7%). Orally administered Araliaceae saponin extracts did not affect plasma lactic acid, glucagon, insulin or liver glycogen levels in exercised rats and did not prolong their swimming time. Plasma glucose levels in resting rats were decreased by saponin extracts of Canadian white, American red , Sanchi, Aralia, Eleutherococcus, Korean red and Shiu-Chi ginsengs.
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16: Am J Chin Med 1977 Spring;5(1):1-23
A contribution to our knowledge of ginseng.
Hu SY. |
The Chinese people discovered ginseng and used it as a revitalizing agent since time immemorial. They are still the world's major consumers of this plant drug. The commercial product of ginseng comes from two species of the genus Panax in the family Araliaceae. These species are P. ginseng C. A. Meyer which is the source plant of the Chinese, Korean and Japanese brands of ginseng, and P. quinquefolius L., which is the source of American ginseng. Phytogeographically, ginseng demonstrates the classical bicentric pattern of plant distribution, with closely related species in eastern Asia and in eastern North America . Ecologically, ginseng is an undergrowth of hardwood mixed deciduous forest. It prefers the northern or the northeastern slope of a hill. Species of the genus Tilia are good indicators of the proper environmental condition for the growth of ginseng. Morphologically, ginseng is a perennial herb with fleshy root, a single annual stem bearing a whorl of palmately compound leaves, and a terminal simple umbel of small 5-merous flowers. The flowers are soon followed by pea-sized fruits developed from inferior ovaries. The fruits are red when ripe. Ginseng is propagated by seed. The commercial products of ginseng consist primarily of roots 2-20 years old. Within this age range, the older the root the higher the market value, provided they are grown in proper conditions. The methods of curing the roots change the color and shape of the products. Chinese ginseng is prepared from roots bleached, boiled, steamed, or sugared in curing. The cultural background for the uses of ginseng by the Chinese people is explained. Ginseng may be used alone in the form of tea, powder, or as a masticatory. It is also used in combination with other drugs of animal, mineral, or plant origin. Forty-two recipes are selected from Pen-ts'oa kang-mu and translated into English for the first time to show the various ways by which ginseng is used in traditional Chinese medicine. A systematic summary of the companion plant drugs of ginseng is presented in the form of a table, showing the distribution of the species in the plant kingdom.
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