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Within the Ginseng (Araliaceae) family, the American Ginseng is a plant which is grown in the East of North America and Canada . Its active components are similar to the Korean Ginseng. However, its principal active component is the ginsenosid Rb1 which lacks the sesquiterpenic alcohols of the Korean ginseng and has a sweet, slightly different taste.
This plant is well known and recognized for its revitalizing physical, mental and sexual properties, and is considered a primary adaptogen which helps the system to adapt to physical, chemical and biological stress. There are various plants that belong to this botanic genus or share similar therapeutic properties and therefore have the denomination Ginseng: the Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng), the American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), the Siberian ginseng (Acanthopanax senticosus), and the Brazilian ginseng (Pfaffia paniculata), but other plants have, wrongly, been considered a ginseng.
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Press the bottle to see a photo of this plant |
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Active Components:
The active components responsible for its medicinal effects are triterponic saponins, 25 different types of which have been identified. They have the denomination ginsenosids R (Japan) or panaxosids A-F (Russia). They also contain watersoluble polysaccharides (panaxanos A-U), essential acids (panacene, limonene, terpineol, citral) and polyacetylenes (ginsenoines A-K, panaxinol and panaxitriol). Furthermore, phytosterols like beta-sitsterol.
The principal active components - the ginsenosids - exist only in all kinds of ginseng. The Korean panax ginseng is the one which contains major concentrations of five of these ginsenoids, while panax quinquefolium contains principally two of these 5 ginsenoids.
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Pharmacological Action:
1) Energizing Effect:
The active components of ginseng link up with the beta-adrenergical recipients of the cell membrane, which activates the ways of transduction of the second messenger (AM Poiklic). Subsequently, the signal passes to the mitochondria to increase the activity of the malato-dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase and citrate-synetase (enzymes of the aerobic glycolisis or cycle of the tricarboxylic acids). This increases the generation of ATP and that way increases the energetic levels of the patient.
The increase of aerobic glycosis leads to an increase of the glucose consumption which results in a reduction of the glycemia levels and clinical usefulness when treating diabetes mellitus.
2) Neurostimulating Action:
Prevents the memorial deficit by facilitating the liberation of acetylcholine of the hippocampus nucleus.
Inhibition of the recapture of GABA, noradrenalin, dopamine, glutamate, and serotonin at brain level, which results in the stimulation of cognostic cerebral functions, improving the mental efficiency and the memory.
The ginseng root has a stimulating action on the central nervous system, reducing the depressing effect of some psychodrugs and other substances and increasing the transport of phenylalanine and inorganic phosphor free in the cerebral cortex. Tests in vitro have shown that the ginsenosids Rb1 and Rg1 have neurotropic and neuroprotective actions that may contribute to an improvement of cognitive functions. The improvement of cognitive functions provoked by ginsenosids are shown in life tests and can be related to the modulation of the cholinergic and serotoninergic systems. Furthermore, the ginsenosid Rb1 presents and antiamnesic effect by minimizing the inhibitive effect of peptides beta-amiloids (neurogenerative peptides by a mechanisms to suppress the cholinergic transmission). The pseudoginsenosid F11 antagonizes, in life, the dysfunction in the memory caused by scopolamine.
The ginseng root has also a depressive action on he central nervous system, as the consequence of the modulation in the neurotransmission of the ginsenosids, caused by a decrease of the availability of various neurotransmitters (GABA, glutamate, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonine).
Some ginsenosids block the dopaminergic transmission stimulated by nicotine or other psychostimulants. These substances act in the presynaptic region on acetylcholine nicotinic recipients or on the recipients that depend on Na+ channels of the dopaminergic nervous terminations, but not on the ionic channels that are depending on voltage. Also, an ansiolytic life action has been proved, apart from a higher stress tolerance in mice.
The ginsenosids produce an analgesic effect, possibly by means of opiatic recipients. The intraperitoneal administration of a mixture of ginsenosids suppresses, depending on the dosage, the pain caused by the injection of capsaicin en the subregion of mice. The analgesic action can be observed also when they are administered by intrateccal and intracerebroventricular ways. However, this has not been observed after a skin administration in the region of the capsaicin administration. Therefore, the ginsenosids act at the level of the central nervous system and not at the peripherical level and they act on the sensorial system without affecting the motoric system.
Furthermore, in life, has been observed that the intraperitoneal administration of ginsenosids inhibits the hyperactivity caused by morphine and the tolerance effect observed in the postsynaptic dopaminergic recipients.
Protective neuronal effect during periods of cerebral ischemia, blocking the voltage-dependent channels of sodium.
3) Improves the unspecific humoral immunity:
Induces the production of interpheron and interleukins 1, 6, 8 and 12 and increases the cytotoxic activity of the antibodies. The immunomodulating activity is done by the production of nitric oxide.
The quinqueginsine is a protein which inhibits the inverse transcriptase of HIV-1 and alpha and beta glucosidases that interfere in this virus infection.
4) Improves unspecific cellular immunity:
Improving the function of lymphocytes Th1 and increasing the number of cells that form colonies of granulocytes-macrophages, lymphocytes and neutrophiles.
5) Antioxidant Effects:
Antioxidant effects due to the capture of free radicals and the stimulation of the hepatic glutation peroxidase. The ginseoids Rb1 and Rg3 present a neuroprotective effect, due to an antioxidant action against an overproduction of nitric acid. This reduces the apoptosis of healthy cells, for example: it has been shown that it protects the dopaminergical neurons in Parkinson’s disease.
6) Hypoglycemiatic Actions:
Ginseng increases the insulin secretion due to the stimulation of the beta cells of the pancreas and regulates the formation of hepatic glucogen. Tests in vitro with Langerhans isles on rats have shown that ginseng increases the insulin liberation. In life tests with rats an increase of the number of recipients in the spinal cord has been shown and a reduction of recipients of glucocarticoids in rat brains. Furthermore, the glucose consumption increases by means of the aerobic glycosis cycle. Clinical tests with humans have confirmed its hypoglycemiatic action of clinical application in the treatment of diabetes mellitus, type I and II.
7) Cardiovascular Activity:
The ginseng root has a hypotensory and hypertensive action which depends of the proportion of the different types of ginsenosids it contains, due to the fact that some show hypotensory and others hypotensive actions. These saponins act as ontogenists of calcium in the vascular tissues. Ginseng may act against the dysfunction of the vascular endothelium with patient who suffer from hypertension, possibly by an increase of the nitric oxide synthesis. The ischemia/reoxygenization (I/R in life) or the hypoxia/reoxygenization (H/R in vitro) has been observed in various diseases like myocardium attack. The protein PTK plays an important role in damages by I/R and H/R. The ginsenosids Rh1, Rd, Ra1 and Ro inhibit the effects of the activation of PTK induced by H/R in vitro. The watery extract of the panax ginseng root produces a vasodilatation in cerebral arteries as has been shown in life tests, attributed to the increase of the synthesis and liberation of nitric oxide. Furthermore, it has an antithrombotic action, in vitro and life, due o the inhibition of platelet aggregation and the fall of coagulation.
Furthermore, it improves the refractory and repolaritory ventricular periods; increases the bounds of ventricular repolarization, similar to the effects of Verapamil and Amiodarona, anti-arhythmetics used for the treatment of arrhythmia, ventricular type.
8) Cytotoxic Action:
Anti-tumoral effect, probably due to the ginsenosids Rg3, Rg5, and Rh2. Clinical tests with American ginseng show its potential as a support for breast cancer treatment.
The action of this plant is similar, but considerably less, to Korean ginseng. As a difference to that, it does not increase the level of seric free testerone and therefore does not cause any signs of androtenization. Therefore, this plant is considered the “Women’s Ginseng”.
9) Anti-inflammatory Action:
The phytosteroles inhibit the prostaglandin synthetase, reducing the conversion of arachidonic acid into prostaglandin E which interferes in the inflammatory process.
10) Hypolipemiatic Effect:
The ginsenosids show antioxidant properties reducing the oxidizing of the LDL. The ginseng root stimulates the lipoprotein-lipase, an enzyme which reduces he levels of kilomicrons and VLDL in the blood and therefore of cholesterol and triglycerides. Furthermore, its phytosterols reduce the LDL cholesterol levels by decreasing the absorption of dietic cholesterol.
SYSTEMIC MEDICINE AND AMERICAN GINSENG
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| Dosage:
One capsule of 500 mg twice or three times per day with the meals. A period of 2 - 3 weeks is recommended, with intervals of 1 - 2 weeks.
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Adverse Effects:
Although not very frequent in comparison with its extensive use, any abuse may produce the “Syndrome of Ginseng Abuse”, shown by arterial hypertension, nervousness, insomnia, nosebleed (epistaxis), headache, vomiting, nettle rash, and morning diarrhea.
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Precautions :
Has to be used cautiously with patients who suffer from cardiovascular diseases and who use oral hypoglycemiants. Excessive coffee consumption should be avoided.
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Medicamental interaction:
Ginseng may strengthen the effects of inhibitors of mono-amino-oxidase (MAO) which can provoke a hypertensive crisis, headaches, fright and obsessions. It can also boost the action of anticoagulants of the warfarina type.
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Contraindications:
Not to be used by persons who take antidepressives of the IMAO type.
Should not be taken during pregnancy or when its existence is suspected. |
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References
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1 : Arch Intern Med. 2000 Apr 10;160(7):1009-13.
American ginsen (Panax quinquefolius L) reduces postprandial glycemia in nondiabetic subjects and subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Vuksan V, Sievenpiper JL, Koo VY. Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto , St. Michael's Hospital , Ontario , Canada .
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BACKGROUND: Despite a lack of medical evidence to support its therapeutic efficacy, the use of herbal medicine has increased considerably. Ginseng, one of the most widely used herbs, is hypothesized to play a role in carbohydrate metabolism and diabetes mellitus. We therefore undertook a preliminary short-term clinical study to assess whether American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L) affects postprandial glycemia in humans. DESIGN: On 4 separate occasions, 10 nondiabetic subjects (mean [+/-SD] age, 34+/-7 years; mean [+/-SD] body mass index [BMI], 25.6 +/- 3 kg/m2) and 9 subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus (mean [+/-SD] age, 62 +/- 7 years; mean [+/-SD] BMI, 29 +/- 5 kg/m2; mean [+/-SD] glycosylated hemoglobin A1c, 0.08+/-0.005) were randomized to receive 3-g ginseng or placebo capsules, either 40 minutes before or together with a 25-g oral glucose challenge. The placebo capsules contained com flour, in which the quantity of carbohydrate and appearance matched the ginseng capsules. A capillary blood sample was taken fasting and then at 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 (only for subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus ) minutes after the glucose challenge. RESULTS: In subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus, when ginseng was taken taken before or together with the glucose challenge, significant reductions were observed (P<.05). Reductions in area under the glycemic curve was 19+/-22% and 22+/-17% for subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus administered before or together with the glucose challenge, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: American ginseng attenuated postprandial glycemia in subjets with type 2 diabetes mellitus . .
Publication Types:
• Clinical Trial
• Randomized Controlled Trial
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2: Am J Clin Nutr. 2001 Apr;73(4):753-8.
American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) attenuates postprandial glycemia in a time-dependent but not dose-dependent manner in healthy individuals.
Vuksan V. Sievenpiper JL, Wong J. Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto , Ontario , Canada .
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BACKGROUND: We previously showed that 3 g American ginseng administered 40 min before an oral glucose challenge significantly reduces postprandial glycemia in subjects without diabetes. Whether this effect can be replicated with doses < 3 g and administration times closer to the oral glucose challenge is unclear. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to study the dosing and timing effects of American ginseng on postprandial glycemia. DESIGN: In a random crossover design, 12 healthy individuals [X +/- SEM age: 42 +/- 7 y; body mass index (BMI; in kg/m2): 24.1 +/- 1.1] received 16 treatments: 0 (placebo), 1, 2, or 3 g American ginseng at 40, 20, 10, or 0 min before a 25-g oral glucose challenge. Capillary blood was collected before administration and at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, and 90 min after the start of the glucose challenge. RESULTS: Two-way analysis of variance showed that the main effects of treatment and administration time were significant (P < 0.05). Glycemia was lower over the last 45 min of the test after doses of 1, 2, or 3 g ginseng than after placebo (P < 0.05); there were no significant differences between doses. The reductions in the areas under the curve for these 3 doses were 14.4 +/- 6.5%, 10.6 +/- 4.0%, and 9.1 +/- 6%, respectively. Glycemia in the last hour of the test and area under the curve were significantly lower when ginseng was administered 40 min before the challenge than when it was administered 20, 10, or 0 min before the challenge (P < 0.05 ). CONCLUSIONS: American ginseng reduced postprandial glycemia in subjects without diabetes. These reductions were time dependent but not dose dependent: an effect was seen only when the ginseng was administered 40 min before the challenge. Doses within the range of 1- 3 g were equally effective.
Publication Types:
• Clinical Trial
• Randomized Controlled Trial
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3: Diabetes Care. 2000 Sep;23(9):1221-6.
Similar postprandial glycemic reductions with escalation of dose and administration time of American ginseng in type 2 diabetes.
Vuksan V, Stavro MP, Sievenpiper JL. Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto , Ontario , Canada .
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OBJECTIVE: We previously demonstrated that 3 g American ginseng (AG) reduced postprandial glycemia (PPG) in type 2 diabetic individuals. We investigated whether further reductions can be achieved with escalation of dose and time of AG administration. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Ten type 2 diabetic patients (6 men, 4 women; age 63+/-2 years; BMI 27.7+/-1.5 kg/m2; HbA1c 7.3+/-0.3%) were randomly administered 0 g (placebo) or 3, 6, or 9 g ground AG root in capsules at 120, 80, 40, or 0 min before a 25-g oral glucose challenge. Capillary blood glucose was measured before ingestion of AG or placebo and at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 min from the start of the glucose challenge. RESULTS: Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) demonstrated that treatment (0, 3, 6, and 9 g AG) but not time of administration (120, 80, 40, or 0 min before the challenge) significantly affected PPG (P<0.05), with significant (P = 0.037) interaction for area under the curve (AUC). Pairwise comparisons showed that compared with 0 g (placebo), 3, 6, or 9 g significantly (P<0.05) reduced AUC (19.7, 15.3, and 15.9%, respectively) and incremental glycemia at 30 min (16.3, 18.4, and 18.4%, respectively), 45 min (12.5, 14.3, and 14.3%, respectively), and 120 min (59.1, 40.9, and 45.5%, respectively). However, pairwise comparisons showed no differences between the 3-, 6-, or 9-g doses and any of the times of administration. CONCLUSIONS: American Ginseng reduced postprandial glycemia irrespective of dose and time of administration. No more than 3 g AG was required at any time in relation to the challenge to achieve reductions. Because these reductions included glycemia at the 2-h diagnostic end point, there may be implications for diabetes diagnosis and treatment.
Publication Types:
• Clinical Trial
• Randomized Controlled Trial
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4: J Am Geriatr Soc. 2004 Jan;52(1):13-9.
A placebo-controlled trial of a proprietary extract of North American ginseng (CVT-E002) to prevent acute respiratory illness in institutionalized older adults.
McElhaney JE, Gravenstein S, Cole SK. Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk , Virginia , USA .
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OBJECTIVES: To compare a proprietary extract of American ginseng, CVT-E002, with placebo in preventing acute respiratory illness (ARI) in an institutional setting during the influenza season. DESIGN: Two randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials conducted late in the 2000 (8 week) and 2000-2001 (12 week) influenza seasons. SETTING: Long-term care setting that included nursing home and assisted living at three sites. PARTICIPANTS: Eighty-nine (2000) and 109 (2000-2001) enrolled subjects, average age 81 and 83.5, respectively; 74% women. Approximately 90% had received influenza vaccine in each of the 2 years. INTERVENTION: Oral twice-daily administration of a proprietary ginseng extract, CVT-E002, 200 mg or placebo. MEASUREMENTS: ARI was defined as two new respiratory symptoms or one with a constitutional symptom. Confirmation of viral ARI was by culture (influenza or respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)) or serology for influenza. Laboratory safety monitoring was done at 0, 4, and 8 or 12 weeks. RESULTS: An intent-to-treat analysis of pooled data corrected for drug exposure time showed that the incidence of laboratory-confirmed influenza illness (LCII) was greater in placebo- (7 cases/101 subjects) than CVT-E002-treated (1/97) groups (odds ratio (OR)=7.73, P=.033). Combined data for LCII and RSV illness were also greater in placebo- (9/101) than CVT-E002-treated (1/97) groups (OR=10.50, P=.009), for an overall 89% relative risk reduction of ARI in the CVT-E002 group. CONCLUSION: CVT-E002 was shown to be safe, well tolerated, and potentially effective for preventing ARI due to influenza and RSV.
Publication Types:
• Clinical Trial
• Randomized Controlled Trial
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5: Phytomedicine 2002 Jul;9(5):398-404
Extractable polysaccharides of Panax quinquefolius L. (North American ginseng) root stimulate TNFalpha production by alveolar macrophages.
Assinewe VA , Amason JT, Aubry A, Mullin J, Lemaire I.
Department of Biology, University of Ottawa , Canada .
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We have investigated the immunostimulatory activity of the medicinal plant Panax quinquefolius L. (North American ginseng). Rat alveolar macrophages were treated with different extracts from 4-year old roots, and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF) production was used as a measure of immunostimulatory activity. Aqueous extracts of P. quinquefolius root (1-100 microg/ml) were found to significantly stimulate alveolar macrophage TNF release. Both a P. quinquefolius methanol extract containing ginsenosides (but no polysaccharides), and pure ginsenoside-Rb1, the major ginsenoside present in P. quinquefolius, were found to be inactive as TNF-stimulating agents. Significant TNF-stimulating activity was found in the extractable polysaccharide fraction, which was hydrolyzed and found to contain glucose, galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, and mannose. This represents the first evidence that North American ginseng exerts cytokine-stimulating activity on macrophages.
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6: J Neurotrauma 2002 Mar;19(3):369-78
Enhanced survival and regeneration of axotomized retinal ganglion cells by a mixture of herbal extracts.
Cheung ZH, So KF, Lu Q. Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong , China .
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The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of Panax quinquefolius L. extract (PQE), Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE), and Hypericum perforatum extract (HPE), in combination or alone, on the survival and regeneration of axotomized retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in an optic nerve transection model in adult hamsters. Unilateral transection of the optic nerve was performed to evaluate the effects of herbal extracts on the survival of axotomized RGCs. Effects of the herbal extracts on axonal regeneration of axotomized RGCs, on the other hand, were studied by attaching a peripheral nerve graft onto the transected ocular stump to induce regeneration. Operated animals received daily oral administration of vehicle or herbal extracts (PQE, GBE, and HPE), alone or in combination, for 7 and 21 days, respectively, in the survival and regeneration experiments. Surviving and regenerating RGCs were retrogradely labeled with Fluoro-Gold. The eyes were then enucleated and the retinas were flat-mounted for the counting of the labeled RGCs. Treatment with PQE, GBE and HPE alone failed to offer neuroprotection to injured RGCs. However, treatment with Menta-FX, a mixture of PQE, GBE, and HPE, significantly augmented RGC survival 7 days postaxotomy. Treatment with Menta-FX also induced a significant (87%) increase in the number of regenerating RGCs 21 days after optic nerve transection. This study demonstrates that herbs can act as a potential neuroprotective agent for damaged RGCs. It also suggests that the therapeutic value of herbal remedies can be maximized by the use of mixtures of appropriate herbs.
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7: Drug Metab Dispos 2002 Apr;30(4):378-84
In vitro effect of standardized ginseng extracts and individual ginsenosides on the catalytic activity of human CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP1B1.
Chang TK, Chen J, Benetton SA. Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of British Columbia , Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada .
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Ginseng extract has been reported to decrease the incidence of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-initiated tumorigenesis in mice. A potential mechanism for this effect by ginseng is inhibition of DMBA-bioactivating cytochrome P450 (P450) enzymes. In the present in vitro study, we examined the effect of a standardized Panax ginseng (or Asian ginseng) extract (G115), a standardized Panax quinquefolius (or North American ginseng) extract (NAGE), and individual ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, and Rg1) on CYP1 catalytic activities, as assessed by 7-ethoxyresorufin O-dealkylation. G115 and NAGE decreased human recombinant CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP1B1 activities in a concentration-dependent manner. Except for the competitive inhibition of CYP1A1 by G115, the mode of inhibition was the mixed-type in the other cases. A striking finding was that NAGE was 45-fold more potent than G115 in inhibiting CYP1A2. Compared with G115, NAGE also preferentially inhibited 7-ethoxyresorufin O-dealkylation activity in human liver microsomes. Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, and Rg1, either individually or as a mixture and at the levels reflecting those found in an inhibitory concentration (100 microg/ml) of NAGE or G115, did not influence CYP1 activities. However, at a higher ginsenoside concentration (50 microg/ml), Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, and Rf inhibited these activities. Overall, our in vitro findings indicate that standardized NAGE and G115 extracts, which were not treated with calf serum or subjected to acid hydrolysis, inhibited CYP1 catalytic activity in an enzyme-selective and extract-specific manner, but the effects were not due to Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, or Rg1.
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8: Phytomedicine 2001 May;8(3):178-83
Effects of Panax quinquefolius L. on brainstem neuronal activities: comparison between Wisconsin-cultivated and Illinois-cultivated roots.
Yuan CS, Wang X, Wu JA. Tang Center for Herbal Medicine Research, Pritzker School of Medicine, The University of Chicago, Illinois, USA.
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Brainstem neurons receiving subdiaphragmatic vagal inputs were recorded in an in vitro neonatal rat brainstem-gastric preparation. Aqueous extracts of American ginseng root (Panax quinquefolius L.) from Wisconsin and Illinois were applied to the gastric compartment or the brainstem compartment of the bath chamber to evaluate the peripheral gut or central brain effects of the extracts on brainstem unitary activity. After P. quinquefolius extract application to the gastric or brainstem compartment, a concentration-related inhibition in neuronal discharge frequency in brainstem unitary activity was observed, suggesting that P. quinquefolius plays an important role in regulating the digestive process and modulating the brain function in the rat . In this study, pharmacological effects of Wisconsin-cultivated P. quinquefolius and Illinois-cultivated P. quinquefolius were compared. Our results showed that Illinois-cultivated P. quinquefolius possesses a significantly stronger peripheral gastric as well as central brain modulating effect on brainstem neuronal activity. Data from our high performance liquid chromatography ginsenoside analysis suggest that this increase in inhibitory effects by Illinois-cultivated P. quinquefolius may be due to its different ginsenoside profile.
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9: J Agric Food Chem 2001 May;49(5):2472-9
Evaluation of estrogenic activity of plant extracts for the potential treatment of menopausal symptoms.
Liu J, Burdette JE, Xu H. Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, UIC/NIH Center for Botanical Dietary Supplements Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA.
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Eight botanical preparations that are commonly used for the treatment of menopausal symptoms were tested for estrogenic activity. Methanol extracts of red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), chasteberry (Vitex agnus-castus L.), and hops (Humulus lupulus L.) showed significant competitive binding to estrogen receptors alpha (ER alpha) and beta (ER beta). With cultured Ishikawa (endometrial) cells, red clover and hops exhibited estrogenic activity as indicated by induction of alkaline phosphatase (AP) activity and up-regulation of progesterone receptor (PR) mRNA. Chasteberry also stimulated PR expression, but no induction of AP activity was observed. In S30 breast cancer cells, pS2 (presenelin-2), another estrogen-inducible gene, was up-regulated in the presence of red clover, hops, and chasteberry. Interestingly, extracts of Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) and North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) induced pS2 mRNA expression in S30 cells, but no significant ER binding affinity, AP induction, or PR expression was noted in Ishikawa cells . Dong quai [Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels] and licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra L.) showed only weak ER binding and PR and pS2 mRNA induction. Black cohosh [Cimicifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt.] showed no activity in any of the above in vitro assays. Bioassay-guided isolation utilizing ER competitive binding as a monitor and screening using ultrafiltration LC-MS revealed that genistein was the most active component of red clover. Consistent with this observation, genistein was found to be the most effective of four red clover isoflavones tested in the above in vitro assays. Therefore, estrogenic components of plant extracts can be identified using assays for estrogenic activity along with screening and identification of the active components using ultrafiltration LC-MS. These data suggest a potential use for some dietary supplements, ingested by human beings, in the treatment of menopausal symptoms.
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10: Am J Chin Med 2001;29(1):149-54
Effect of American ginseng extract (Panax quinquefolius) on formalin-induced nociception in mice.
Yang JC, Pang CS, Tsang SF. Department of Anaesthesiology, The University of Hong Kong . |
Twenty-three ICR mice were force fed orally with American ginseng extract, Panax quinquefolius, (Cold FX) for 4 days. Another 20 mice were fed with water as placebo in a similar fashion. Formalin tests which yield typically two phases of pain behavior were done in both groups. Although there was no difference in the first phase between groups, mice treated with Cold FX spent significantly less time in licking and biting of the injured paws in the second phase. The data indicate that American ginseng may have analgesic effect in this chronic pain model.
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11: J Am Coll Nutr 2000 Nov-Dec;19(6):738-44
American ginseng improves glycemia in individuals with normal glucose tolerance: effect of dose and time escalation.
Vuksan V, Stavro MP, Sievenpiper JL. Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto and Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre, St. Michael's Hospital, Ontario, Canada.
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OBJECTIVE: We studied the effect of escalating the dose and administration time of American ginseng (AG, Panax quinquefolius L.) in nondiabetic individuals to achieve further improvements in glucose tolerance seen previously when 3 g of AG was taken 40 minutes before a 25 g glucose challenge. METHODS: Ten nondiabetic individuals (6M:4F; mean +/- STD: age = 41 +/- 13 years, BMI = 24.8 +/- 3.5 kg/m2, FBG = 4.5 +/- 0.1 mmol L(-1)) on 12 separate occasions, randomly received 0 (placebo), 3, 6 or 9 g of ground AG root at 40, 80, or 120 minutes before a 25 g oral glucose challenge. Capillary blood glucose was measured prior to ingestion of AG or placebo capsules and at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60 and 90 minutes from start of challenge. RESULTS: Compared with the placebo, 3, 6 and 9 g of AG reduced (p<0.05) postprandial incremental glucose at 30, 45 and 60 minutes; also, 3 and 9 g of AG did so at 90 minutes. At 60 minutes, 9 g of AG reduced incremental postprandial glucose relative to 3 g of AG (p<0.05). All AG doses reduced (p<0.05) area under the incremental glucose curve ( 3 g , 26.6%; 6 g , 29.3%; 9 g , 38.5%). AG taken at different times did not have an additional influence on postprandial glycemia. CONCLUSIONS: In nondiabetic individuals, 3, 6 or 9 g of AG taken 40, 80 or 120 minutes before a glucose challenge similarly improved glucose tolerance.
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12: Eur J Pharmacol 2001 Feb 9;413(1):47-54
Voltage-dependent inhibition of brain Na(+) channels by American ginseng.
Liu D, Li B, Liu Y, Attele AS. Department of Neurobiology, Pharmacology and Physiology, The Pritzker School of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
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American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) is a major species of ginseng that has many pharmacological effects. Studies have demonstrated that constituents of ginseng have neuroprotective effects during ischemia. Neuronal damage during ischemic episodes has been associated with abnormal Na(+) fluxes. Drugs that block voltage-dependent Na(+) channels provide cytoprotection during cerebral ischemia. We thus hypothesized that American ginseng may block Na(+) channels. In this study, effects of an American ginseng aqueous extract was evaluated in tsA201 cells transfected with cDNA expressing alpha subunits of the Brain(2a) Na(+) channel using the whole-cell patch clamp technique. We found that American ginseng extract tonically and reversibly blocked the channel in a concentration- and voltage-dependent manner. It shifted the voltage-dependence of inactivation by 14 mV (3 mg/ml) in the hyperpolarizing direction and delayed recovery from inactivation, whereas activation of the channel was unaffected. Ginsenoside Rb(1), a major constituent of the American ginseng extract, produced similar effects. The data were compared with the actions of lidocaine, a Na(+) channel blocker. Our results suggest that Na(+) channel block by American ginseng extract and Rb(1) was primarily due to interaction with the inactive state of the channel. Inhibition of the Na(+) channel activity by American ginseng extract may contribute to its neuroprotective effect during ischemia.
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13: Mol Cell Biochem 2000 Jan;203(1-2):1-10
Antioxidant properties of a North American ginseng extract.
Kitts DD, Wijewickreme AN, Hu C. Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of British Columbia , Vancouver , Canada .
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A North American ginseng extract (NAGE) containing known principle ginsenosides for Panax quinquefolius was assayed for metal chelation, affinity to scavenge DPPH-stable free radical, and peroxyl (LOO*) and hydroxyl (*OH) free radicals for the purpose of characterizing mechanisms of antioxidant activity. Dissociation constants (Kd) for NAGE to bind transition metals were in the order of Fe2+ > Cu2+ > Fe3+ and corresponded to the affinity to inhibit metal induced lipid peroxidation. In a metal-free linoleic acid emulsion, NAGE exhibited a significant (p < or = 0.05) concentration (0.01-10 mg/mL) dependent mitigation of lipid oxidation as assessed by the ammonium thiocyanate method. Similar results were obtained when NAGE was incubated in a methyl linoleate emulsion containing haemoglobin catalyst and assessed by an oxygen electrode. NAGE also showed strong DPPH radical scavenging activity up to a concentration of 1.6 mg/mL (r2 = 0.996). Similar results were obtained for scavenging of both site-specific and non site-specific *OH, using the deoxyribose assay method. Moreover, NAGE effectively inhibited the non site-specific DNA strand breakage caused by Fenton agents, and suppressed the Fenton induced oxidation of a 66 Kd soluble protein obtained from mouse brain over a concentration range of 2-40 mg/mL. These results indicate that NAGE exhibits effective antioxidant activity in both lipid and aqueous mediums by both chelation of metal ions and scavenging of free radicals .
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14: J Surg Oncol 1999 Dec;72(4):230-9
American ginseng and breast cancer therapeutic agents synergistically inhibit MCF-7 breast cancer cell growth.
Duda RB, Zhong Y, Navas V. Department of Surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
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BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) purportedly alleviates menopause symptoms because of putative estrogenicity. METHODS: Using a standardized American ginseng (AG) extract in MCF-7 breast cancer cells, the objectives were to evaluate the ability of AG to induce the estrogen- regulated gene pS2 by Northern blot analysis, determine the effect on cell growth using the MTT assay, and evaluate the cell cycle effects by flow cytometry. RESULTS: AG and estradiol equivalently induced RNA expression of pS2. AG, in contrast to estradiol, caused a dose-dependent decrease in cell proliferation (P < 0.005). AG had no adverse effect on the cell cycle while estradiol significantly increased the proliferative phase (percent S-phase) and decreased the resting phase (G(0)-G(1) phase) (P < 0.005). Concurrent use of AG and breast cancer therapeutic agents resulted in a significant (P < 0.005) suppression of cell growth for most drugs evaluated. CONCLUSIONS: In vitro use of AG and breast cancer therapeutics synergistically inhibited cancer cell growth.
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15: Jpn J Pharmacol 1984 Jun;35(2):79-85
The physiological effects of Aralia, Panax and Eleutherococcus on exercised rats.
Martinez B, Staba EJ.
Relative and total amount of saponins in Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, Aralia mandshurica and Eleutherococcus senticosus were determined by thin-layer chromatography and by a spectrophotometric method. The ginsenoside Rg1 was present in American ginseng . Aralia and Eleutherococcus did not contain diol- and triol-type ginsenosides. Low concentrations of ginsenosides were found in Oriental red ginsengs (1.4-2.7%). Orally administered Araliaceae saponin extracts did not affect plasma lactic acid, glucagon, insulin or liver glycogen levels in exercised rats and did not prolong their swimming time. Plasma glucose levels in resting rats were decreased by saponin extracts of Canadian white, American red , Sanchi, Aralia, Eleutherococcus, Korean red and Shiu-Chi ginsengs.
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16: Am J Chin Med 1977 Spring;5(1):1-23
A contribution to our knowledge of ginseng.
Hu SY. |
The Chinese people discovered ginseng and used it as a revitalizing agent since time immemorial. They are still the world's major consumers of this plant drug. The commercial product of ginseng comes from two species of the genus Panax in the family Araliaceae. These species are P. ginseng C. A. Meyer which is the source plant of the Chinese, Korean and Japanese brands of ginseng, and P. quinquefolius L., which is the source of American ginseng. Phytogeographically, ginseng demonstrates the classical bicentric pattern of plant distribution, with closely related species in eastern Asia and in eastern North America . Ecologically, ginseng is an undergrowth of hardwood mixed deciduous forest. It prefers the northern or the northeastern slope of a hill. Species of the genus Tilia are good indicators of the proper environmental condition for the growth of ginseng. Morphologically, ginseng is a perennial herb with fleshy root, a single annual stem bearing a whorl of palmately compound leaves, and a terminal simple umbel of small 5-merous flowers. The flowers are soon followed by pea-sized fruits developed from inferior ovaries. The fruits are red when ripe. Ginseng is propagated by seed. The commercial products of ginseng consist primarily of roots 2-20 years old. Within this age range, the older the root the higher the market value, provided they are grown in proper conditions. The methods of curing the roots change the color and shape of the products. Chinese ginseng is prepared from roots bleached, boiled, steamed, or sugared in curing. The cultural background for the uses of ginseng by the Chinese people is explained. Ginseng may be used alone in the form of tea, powder, or as a masticatory. It is also used in combination with other drugs of animal, mineral, or plant origin. Forty-two recipes are selected from Pen-ts'oa kang-mu and translated into English for the first time to show the various ways by which ginseng is used in traditional Chinese medicine. A systematic summary of the companion plant drugs of ginseng is presented in the form of a table, showing the distribution of the species in the plant kingdom.
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